Материал: Weber H., Herziger G., Poprawe R. (eds.) Laser Fundamentals. Part 1 (Springer 2005)(263s) PEo

4.1.1.1.2 Abbreviations

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4.1.1.2 Historical layout

The pioneering work of Franken et al. [61Fra] on second harmonic generation of ruby laser radiation in quartz and invention of the phase-matching concept [62Gio, 62Mak] generated a new direction in the freshly born field of nonlinear optics: frequency conversion in crystals. Sum frequency generation by mixing the outputs of two ruby lasers in quartz was already realized in 1962 [62Mil, 62Bas]. Zernike and Berman [65Zer] were the first to demonstrate di erence frequency mixing. Optical parametric oscillation was experimentally realized in 1965 by Giordmaine and Miller [65Gio]. First monographs on nonlinear optics by Akhmanov and Khokhlov [64Akh] and Bloembergen [65Blo] greatly stimulated development of the nonlinear frequency converters. At present the conversion of laser radiation in nonlinear crystals is a powerful method for generating widely tunable radiation in the ultraviolet, visible, near, mid, and far IR regions.

For theoretical and experimental details of nonlinear frequency conversions in crystals, see monographs by Zernike and Midwinter [73Zer], Danelyus, Piskarskas et al. [83Dan], Dmitriev and Tarasov [87Dmi], Shen [84She], Handbook of nonlinear optical crystals (by Dmitriev, Gurzadyan, Nikogosyan) [91Dmi, 99Dmi], Handbook of nonlinear optics (by Sutherland ) [96Sut]. For frequency conversion of femtosecond laser pulses, see also [88Akh]. For linear and nonlinear optical properties of the crystals, see [77Nik, 79Kur, 84Jer, 87Nik, 87Che, 96Sut, 99Dmi, 00Cha, 00Sas]. For related nonlinear phenomena, see [96Sut]. For the historical perspective of the nonlinear frequency conversion over the first forty years, see [00Bye]. In the following section, Sect. 4.1.2, we present some basic equations which may be useful for simple calculations of frequency converters.

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4.1.2 Fundamentals

4.1.2.1 Three-wave interactions

Dielectric polarization P (dipole moment of unit volume of the substance) is related to the field E by the material equation of the medium [64Akh, 65Blo] (Chap. 1.1):

with

ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 CV−1m−1 : dielectric permittivity of free space,

χ(1) = n2 − 1 : the linear, and χ(2) , χ(3) etc.: the nonlinear dielectric susceptibilities.

In the present chapter, Chap. 4.1, we consider only three-wave interactions in crystals with square nonlinearity (χ(2) = 0). The following nonlinear frequency conversion processes are considered:

Second Harmonic Generation (SHG):

Sum-Frequency Generation (SFG) or up-conversion:

Di erence-Frequency Generation (DFG) or down-conversion:

ki : the wave vectors for ω1 , ω2 , ω3 , respectively.

Two types of phase matching are introduced:

type I: o + o → e or e + e → o , type II: o + e → e or o + e → o ,

or with shortened notations:

ooe: o + o → e or e → o + o , eeo: e + e → o or o → e + e , eoe: e + o → e or e → e + o , oeo: o + e → o or o → e + o .

In the shortened notation (ooe, eoe, . . . ) applies: ω1 < ω2 < ω3, i.e. the first symbol refers to the longest-wavelength radiation, and the latter to the shortest-wavelength radiation. Here, o-beam, or ordinary beam, is the beam with polarization normal to the principal plane of the crystal, i.e.

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the plane containing the wave vector k and crystallophysical axis Z (or optical axis, for uniaxial crystals). The e-beam, or extraordinary beam, is the beam with polarization in the principal plane.

The methods of angular and temperature phase-matching tuning are used in frequency converters. Angular tuning is rather simple and more rapid than temperature tuning. Temperature tuning is generally used in the case of 90 ◦ phase matching, i.e., when the birefringence angle is zero. This method is mainly used in crystals with a strong temperature dependence of phase matching: LiNbO3, LBO, KNbO3, and Ba2NaNb5O15.

4.1.2.2 Uniaxial crystals

For uniaxial crystals the di erence between the refractive indices of the ordinary and extraordinary beams, birefringence ∆n , is zero along the optical axis (crystallophysical axis Z) and maximum in the normal direction. The refractive index of the ordinary beam does not depend on the direction of propagation, however, the refractive index of the extraordinary beam ne(θ) is a function of the polar angle θ between the Z axis and the vector k (but not of the azimuthal angle ϕ) (Fig. 4.1.1):

where no and ne are the refractive indices of the ordinary and extraordinary beams in the plane normal to the Z axis and termed as corresponding principal values. Note that if no > ne , the crystal is negative, and if no < ne , it is positive. For an o-beam the indicatrix of the refractive indices is a sphere with radius no , and an ellipsoid of rotation with semiaxes no and ne for an e-beam (Fig. 4.1.2). In the crystal the beam, in general, is divided into two beams with orthogonal polarizations; the angle between these beams ρ is the birefringence (or walk-o ) angle.

Equations for calculating phase-matching angles in uniaxial crystals are given in Table 4.1.1 [86Nik, 99Dmi].

Z

k

Y

X

Fig. 4.1.1. Polar coordinate system for description of refraction properties of uniaxial crystals (k is the light propagation direction, Z is the optic axis, θ and ϕ are the coordinate angles).

4.1.2.3 Biaxial crystals

For biaxial crystals the optical indicatrix has a bilayer surface with four points of interlayer contact which correspond to the directions of two optical axis. In the simple case of light propagation in

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Fig. 4.1.2. Dependence of refractive index on light propagation direction and polarization (index surface) in uniaxial crystals: (a) negative: no > ne and (b) positive: ne > no .

Table 4.1.1. Equations for calculating phase-matching angles in uniaxial crystals [86Nik, 99Dmi].

the phase-matching angle θpmooe is determined from the above presented equation using the new coe cients U and W :

U = (A2 + B2 + 2AB cos γ)/C2 , W = (A2 + B2 + 2AB cos γ)/F 2 ,

where γ is the angle between the wave vectors k1 and k2 .

the principal planes XY , Y Z, and XZ the dependencies of refractive indices on the direction of light propagation represent a combination of an ellipse and a circle (Fig. 4.1.3). Thus in the principal planes a biaxial crystal can be considered as a uniaxial crystal, e.g. a biaxial crystal with nZ > nY > nX in the XY plane is similar to a negative uniaxial crystal with no = nZ and

The angle VZ between the optical axis and Z axis for the case nZ > nY > nX can be found from:

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