Материал: The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion by John Hinnells
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example. If God has exhaustive knowledge of all future events, including human actions, how could one freely choose to do those actions? A recent position known as “open theism” defends a view of God’s knowledge which, unlike the historical concept of omniscience defended by Boethius, Anselm, Aquinas, and other traditional believers, posits a future that is undetermined, open, and uncertain. Adherents of open theism argue that their view allows for human freedom without denying God’s omniscience and thus maintains an element of orthodoxy and yet avoids the contradictions which arise from the traditional view of divine knowledge.
The challenges to the classical view of God are taken even further by Christian and Jewish scholars who hold to a position known as “process theism.” For process theologians and philosophers, many of the divine attributes as traditionally understood are denied. As these thinkers argue, many of the historic attributes of God are derived from ancient Greek philosophy and are not found in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles. This process view, they maintain, in which God has persuasive power and not coercive power, for example, better fits the descriptions of God as described in the scriptures. Furthermore, they argue, God is not a substance in the classical sense of the term but rather is involved within the spatiotemporal world as an active participant – a process that is at work in and beyond the world.
While there have been many challenges to the classical attributes of God, there are also contemporary philosophers and theologians who have defended each of the attributes as traditionally understood. And there is much lively discussion currently underway by those defending both the classical and neo-classical views of God. But not all philosophers and theologians have believed that the truths of religious beliefs can be or even should be rationally justified, as noted above. Fideists, such as Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), for example, maintain that religious faith does not need the support of rational arguments. For fideists, attempting to prove one’s religious faith may even be an indication of a lack of faith. Natural theologians, on the other hand, maintain that faith can be supported by rational arguments and that God’s very existence can be demonstrated through the use of reason unaided by special revelation.
Arguments for and against the existence of God
Adherents of the theistic religions, as with adherents of non-theistic religions, do not typically affirm their religious convictions because of well-articulated, rational reasons or arguments in support of those convictions. Nevertheless, such reasons and arguments have historically been used by many believers to defend and advance their views. For over two millennia arguments have been offered in support of the belief that God exists. The God to which the conclusion of the various classical arguments points is the God of the theistic religions, primarily Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Three of the arguments which have been prominent historically and still receive special attention in contemporary philosophy of religion discussions are the ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments.
Ontological arguments, first developed by St Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109), take a variety of forms. The common theme among them is that they begin a priori – proceeding from the mere concept of God – and conclude that God must exist; in other words, if successful, ontological arguments demonstrate that God’s non-existence is impossible. They are unique among the traditional arguments for God’s existence in that they are a priori arguments, for they are based on premises that can allegedly be known independently of experience of the world.
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Anselm begins his argument in a prayer to God, claiming that he knows that God is “a being than which nothing greater can be conceived”. He also knows that it is one thing to exist in the mind (in the understanding) and another to exist outside the understanding (outside one’s thoughts; in reality). He then asks which is greater, to exist in the mind or in reality. He concludes the argument this way:
Therefore, if that, than which nothing greater can be conceived, exists in the understanding alone, the very being, than which nothing greater can be conÂceived, is one, than which a greater can be conceived. But obviously this is impossible. Hence, there is no doubt that there exists a being, than which nothing greater can be conceived, and it exists both in the understanding and in reality.
(Proslogion, Chapter II, 54)
Thus, by the mere analysis of the concept of God, since it would be a contradiction to affirm that the greatest possible being does not exist in reality but only in the mind (because existing in reality is greater than existing in the mind), one is logically drawn to the conclusion that God must exist.
There have been many objections to this a priori argument for God. One of the most famous is based on the analogy of the greatest possible island and was developed by Anselm’s fellow monk, Gaunilo. Utilizing a reductio ad absurdum, he argued that if we affirm Anselm’s ontological argument, we must also affirm that the greatest possible island exists. Since that conclusion is absurd, so too is Anselm’s conclusion. Another important objection was offered by Immanuel Kant that existence is not a real predicate. Since existence does not add to the concept of a thing, and in Anselm’s argument existence is treated as a real predicate, the argument is flawed.
More recent modal versions of the argument have been construed that avoid the objections to Anselm’s original formulation, including one proposed by Alvin Plantinga. But their soundness has also been challenged on multiple fronts, including debates about the role modal logic should play in metaphysical discussions such as this one.
Cosmological arguments begin by examining some empirical or metaphysical fact of the universe, from which it then follows that something outside the universe must have caused it to exist. There are different types of cosmological argument, and its defenders include some of the most prominent thinkers spanning the history of philosophy: Plato, Aristotle, ibn Sina, al-Ghazali, Maimonides, Aquinas, Descartes, and Leibniz, to name a few. Three versions of the argument that have received much attention are the Thomistic contingency argument, the Leibnizian sufficient reason argument, and the kalam argument.
Regarding the Thomistic contingency argument (named after the medieval Christian theologian/philosopher Thomas Aquinas), the claim is made that contingent things exist in the world – “contingent things” ostensibly referring to those things which begin to exist and cease to exist. It is next argued that not all things can be contingent, for if they were there would be nothing to ground their existence. Only a necessary thing (or being) can account for the existence of contingent things – “necessary thing” ostensibly referring to a thing which never began to exist and which cannot cease to exist. This necessary thing (or being) is referred to as God.
A second kind of cosmological argument is the Leibnizian sufficient reason argument, so named after the German thinker Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716). In this version, an answer is sought to the question, “Why is there something rather than nothing?” For
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Leibniz, there must be an explanation, or “sufficient reason,” for anything that exists, and the explanation for everything that exists must lie either in the necessity of its own nature or in a cause external to itself. The argument concludes that the explanation of the universe must lie in a transcendent God since the universe does not have within its own nature the necessity of its existence.
One objection raised against both the Thomistic and the Leibnizian arguments is that they are demanding unnecessary explanations. If every individual thing in the universe can be explained (even an infinite set of things), why does the whole itself need a further explanation? Furthermore, an explanation must at some point come to an end – a brute fact. So why not end with the universe? Why posit some further transcendent entity?
A third type of cosmological argument is the kalam argument (the term “kalam” coming from medieval Islamic theology which came to mean “speculative theology”). The claim of this argument is that there must be a transcendent first cause of the universe which brought it into existence given that the following two premises are true: (1) whatever begins to exist needs a cause, and (2) the universe began to exist. This version of the cosmological argument has arguably been bolstered in recent times by empirical evidences from astrophysics and cosmology. For example, on one interpretation of the standard Big Bang cosmological model, the time-space universe came into being ex nihilo approximately 13.7 billion years ago. Such a beginning is best explained, argue kalam defenders, by a transcendent cause – namely God.
The premise that the universe began to exist is also argued philosophically in two ways. First, it is argued that an actual infinite set of events cannot exist, for actual infinities lead to metaphysical absurdities. Since an infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite set of events, such a regress is metaphysically impossible. Thus, the past cannot be infinite; the universe must have had a temporal beginning. A second approach begins by arguing that an infinite series of events cannot be formed by successive addition (one member being added to another). The reason for this is that when adding finite numbers, one after the other, the new number is also finite. The addition of yet another finite number, ad infinitum, will never lead to an actual infinite. Since the past is a series of temporal events formed by successive addition, the past could not be actually infinite in duration. The universe must have had a beginning.
A number of objections have been raised against the kalam argument. For example, with respect to the alleged scientific evidence for a beginning of the universe, there are interpretations of the Big Bang model other than those which entail an ex nihilo beginning. There are also other cosmological models of the universe besides the Big Bang model, including eternal universe theories – views more in keeping with Hindu cosmologies than with traditional theistic concepts of the cosmos. In addition, responses have been offered to the philosophical challenges of an eternal universe as well, including the utilization of set theory and mathematical systems which employ actual infinite sets.
Teleological, or design, arguments extend back at least two millennia. In the east, as far back as 100 ce, the Nyāya school in India argued for the existence of a deity based on the order found in nature. In the west, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics offered arguments for a directing intelligence of the world given the order found within it. There is an array of teleological arguments, and a common theme among them all is the claim that certain characteristics of the natural world reflect design, purpose, and intelligence. These features of the natural world are then used as evidence for an intelligent, purposive designer as opposed to naturalistic explanations. One version of the design argument is based on the apparent fine-tuning of the cosmos.
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Fine-tuning arguments include the claims that the laws of nature, the constants of physics, and the initial conditions of the universe are finely tuned for conscious life on planet Earth. For example, several dozen “cosmic constants,” such as the following, are offered as evidence for fine-tuning: (1) If the strong nuclear force (the force that binds protons and neutrons in the atom) had been either stronger or weaker by just 5 percent, life would be impossible; (2) If neutrons were not roughly 1.001 times the mass of protons, all protons would have decayed into neutrons, or visa versa, and life would be impossible; 3) If gravity had been stronger or weaker by one part in 1040, life-sustaining stars (such as the sun) could not exist; thus life would most likely be impossible. While each of the individual calculations of such constants may be in error, it is argued that the number of them, coupled with their independence from one other, provides strong evidence of their being intentionally set with life in mind.
There have also been several important objections raised against fine-tuning arguments. According to an anthropic principle objection, if the laws of nature and physical constants were not finely tuned, there would be no observers to note this fact. Given that such observers exist, it should not be surprising that the laws and constants are just so. One way of accounting for such observers is the many-worlds hypothesis. On this view, there are very many universes, perhaps an infinite number of them, each with their own fundamental physical parameters. Most of these universes would include life-prohibiting parameters, but at least a minimal number of them would probably include life-permitting ones. As a result, it should not be surprising that one of them at least – ours, for example – is such. Much of the current fine-tuning discussion turns on the plausibility of the many-worlds hypothesis and the anthropic principle.
Other versions of the teleological argument have also been proposed which focus not on fundamental parameters of the cosmos but on different aspects of living organisms, including the emergence of living organisms, alleged irreducibly complex systems within living organisms, information intrinsic within the DNA of living organisms, and the rise of consciousness, in an attempt to demonstrate intelligent, purposive qualities of the world. At this time these biological and noological design arguments have not generally received as much attention as the fine-tuning argument by those engaged in natural theology or by the broader philosophical community. While a number of philosophers of religion hold that such scientific and philosophical evidences as offered by the cosmological and teleological arguments provide support for belief in a transcendent deity, there are also many who maintain that the evidence favors naturalism. Naturalism, as used here, is the view that natural entities have only natural causes, and that the world can be fully described and explained by the physical sciences. This view removes the need for a transcendent being to explain the world, and it denies that there are solid reasons or evidences to believe in such a being. And just as there are arguments for God’s existence, there are also arguments against the existence of God and for naturalism. The most prominent of these arguments are of three types: responses to the positive arguments for God, arguments that theism is incoherent, and problems of evil.
One common objection to the traditional arguments for God’s existence as a whole (cosmological, teleological, ontological, moral, arguments from religious experience, etc.) is that even if they are successful, they do not prove the existence of the God of any particular religion. Even if successful, the cosmological argument only provides evidence for a transcendent first cause of the universe, nothing more; at best, the teleological argument provides evidence for a purposive, rational designer, nothing more; and so on. But this is a far cry from the God (or gods) depicted in the Koran, or the Bible, or the Vedas.
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Nevertheless, natural theologians maintain that the central aim of these arguments is not to offer a full-blown proof of any particular deity, but rather to provide some evidence or warrant for belief in a creator, or a designer, or a moral lawgiver, or the like. Some natural theologians argue that it is best to combine the various arguments in order to provide a cumulative case for theism. Cosmological arguments provide insight into God’s creative providence; teleological arguments provide insight into God’s purposive nature and grand intelligence; moral arguments provide insight into God’s moral nature and character, etc. Taken together, they argue, the classical arguments offer a picture of a deity not unlike the God of the theistic religious traditions. Furthermore, they maintain, even if this approach does not prove the existence of any particular deity, it does nonetheless lend support to theism over naturalism.
Philosophical challenges to theism have also included the claim that the very concept of God makes no sense – that the attributes ascribed to God are logically incoherent (either individually or collectively). Much of this criticism has focused on God as understood in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, but it is also relevant to the theistic elements found within Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, and certain forms of African and Native American religions. The question of whether theism is coherent is an important one not only because of what may be learned about the divine attributes but also because if there is reason to believe that theism is incoherent, then theistic belief is, in an important sense, undermined.
One important set of problems which arises from discussions of the coherence of theism has to do with the existence of evil and suffering.
Problems of evil and suffering
It is widely recognized by philosophers and theologians (both eastern and western) that there are problems for one who affirms the existence of an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God on the one hand and the existence of evil on the other. Since most streams of Hinduism and Buddhism do not have such a God, they do not have the problems of evil that the theistic traditions do. They do have the related problem of suffering, and offer their own responses to it as discussed below, but those traditions which affirm the existence of a good and allpowerful God are confronted with some troubling conundrums. Philosopher David Hume (1711–1776 ce), quoting the ancient Greek thinker Epicurus (341–270 bce), expressed one of the problems this way:
Is he [God] willing to prevent evil, but not able? then he is impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?
(Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, Part X, 63)
This is one version of the problem which is often construed as a logical problem of evil. For the logical problem, it is asserted that the two claims, (1) an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God exists and (2) evil exists, are logically incompatible. Since evil ostensibly exists, the argument goes, God (as traditionally understood) must not.
Despite its historical sway, it is now widely acknowledged by philosophers of religion that the logical problem has been successfully rebutted. One reason for this is as follows. Claims
(1) and (2) are not explicitly contradictory. If they are implicitly contradictory, there must be hidden premises or unstated assumptions which make them so. But what might those be? The