remedy – (юр.) средство защиты права
to resort to – прибегать (к ч-л.), обращаться к
International human rights law is the body of international law designed to promote human rights on social, regional, and domestic levels. As a form of international law, the international human rights law is primarily made up of treaties, agreements between sovereign states, have been interconnected to have binding legal effect between the parties that have agreed to them; And customary international law, rules of law derived from the rule of conduct. Other international human rights instruments, while not legally binding to the implementation, understanding and development of international human rights law and have been recognized as a source of political obligation.
Enforcement of international human rights law can occur on either a domestic, a regional or an international level. States ratify human rights and treaties. When domestic law fails to provide a remedy for human rights abuses, parties may be able to resort to regional or international mechanisms for enforcing human rights.
Comprehension Questions
1.What are the human rights laws designed for?
2.What legal effect does the international human rights law have?
3.Are the international human rights instruments legally binding to the implementation?
4.What is the base of international human rights law enforcement?
5.What are the mechanisms for enforcing human rights?
Text 7 Environmental Law
Environmental Law – Экологическое право
Fundamental truths – фундаментальные истины
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Substantial disagreement - серьезные разногласия
Natural laws – законы природы
Falsified prognoses – фальсифицируемые прогнозы
Starting point – отправной пункт Similarities – сходства
Straight forward – прямо
Relevant – уместный, относящийся к делу
To distinguish – различать
Indissolubly - неразрывно, прочно
to capture – захватить; поймать, улавливать to be assessed – подлежать оценке
The question of whether there are laws in ecology is important for a number of reasons. If, as some have suggested, there are no ecological laws, this would seem to distinguish ecology from other branches of science, such as physics. It could also make a difference as to the methodology of ecology. If there are no laws to be discovered, ecologists would seem to be in the business of merely supplying a suite of useful models. These models would need to be assessed for their empirical adequacy but not for their ability to capture fundamental truths or the like. If, however, ecology does have laws, this prompts further questions about what these laws are and why even the best candidates for ecological laws fall short of what might be expected of laws. Such issues lead very naturally to the philosophical question of what laws in science are. There is no straightforward answer to this question, and there is substantial disagreement among those engaging in the relevant debates. A common starting point, at least, is that laws in science are nonaccidental, exceptionless generalizations that make precise, falsifiable predictions. There are good reasons to doubt this account of laws, but still it serves as a useful point of departure. A great deal of the material on this topic focuses on the issue of what laws of nature are and what roles they are supposed to play in scientific theory. The debate about laws in ecology thus crops
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up in two different guises: directly tackling the question of laws in ecology and as a debate about the differences and similarities between ecology and physics. The literature on this topic naturally spans both ecology and philosophy of science and is generally well informed from both perspectives. Further progress on the topic of laws in ecology will need to take on board insights from both ecology and the broader interdisciplinary perspective offered by the philosophy of science.
Comprehension Questions
1.Are there any laws in area of ecology?
2.What does Physics and Ecology differ in?
3.What forms does a discussion show up in the area of ecology?
4.What science is indissolubly related to ecology?
5.Does further development of ecology depend on other sciences?
Text 8 Tax Law
Taxes - налоги
Tax law - налоговое законодательство
Source of revenue - источник доходов
Can be taxed - облагаться налогом
Non-payment – неуплата
Qualifying - квалификация
Category of regulations - категория правил
Legislation - законодательство Rate - ставка
Addresses situations - устранять ситуации
Dues – (мн.ч) налоги, сборы
Qualifying for exemptions – получение права на освобождение от налогов Seek remedy for non-payment – искать средства защиты от неуплаты
To outline – обрисовать, наметить в общих чертах
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Tax law refers to the legislation that regulates the process of government collecting money from citizens or businesses. This money is usually a major source of revenue for governments, but laws are needed to ensure that it is taken in a just and fair manner. Tax law, therefore, tends to outline who must pay taxes and the rate at which they can be taxed. Legislation also addresses situations that may arise in the course of collecting and paying these dues, such as qualifying for exemptions or seeking remedy for non-payment.
It is common for this type of legislation to be referred to as administrative law or public law. Administrative law refers to regulations that are outlined by a government agency. In the United States, for example, much of the tax law is developed by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Each state also has its own taxation agency. In some places, tax legislation is known as public law, which defines a category of regulations that affect a government’s interaction with the public and vice versa.
Comprehension Questions
1.What is the main source of revenue for the government?
2.Who sets out the administrative law?
3.Which service has developed most of the tax legislation in the US?
4.What does the tax law indicate?
5.What aspects of life does tax law regulate?
Text 9 Intellectual Property Law
1.bestselling book - бестселлер
2.mention - упоминание
3.intellectual property - интеллектуальная собственность
4.to apply - применять
5.permission - разрешение
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6.patent - патент
7.copyright - авторское право
8.essential - существенное
9.ownership - владение
10.owned - принадлежать
11.employed - частный предприниматель
12.commissioned - введено в эксплуатацию
13.emphasis - акцент
14.ensure - обеспечить
15.certain amount - определенная сумма
In general, it is not against the law to steal someone else's ideas. If a man I meet in a bar tells me how people can become rich, and I publish a bestselling book based on his ideas, I do not have to pay him any money or even mention his name in the book. But most countries do place legal limits on copying the exact words someone has written, the art or music they have created, or the technology they have invented. Such work is known as intellectual property. The main legal instruments for protecting it are patents and copyrights.
In order to prevent a new discovery or scientific process from being copied, it is necessary to apply for a patent. If granted, a patent makes it illegal for others to manufacture or use the invention without permission. However, a patent will only be granted if the invention has not yet been shown in public and if it has industrial application. Ideas—mathematical and scientific theories, for example— cannot be patented. The patent must be carefully worded since it may be possible for someone to copy any part of the process or invention not mentioned in the patent.
Literature, artistic works, computer programs, movies and radio and television broadcasts cannot be patented, but they can be protected by copyright. In
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