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most countries, such work is automatically protected when it is created; there is no need to apply for or to register copyright. It is usual to record the date of creation and mark it with the international copyright symbol ©, but this is not essential.

As with other kinds of property, intellectual property can only be protected if ownership is clear. The holder of a patent is often a company rather than the individual scientists inventing something in the course of their work. A copyright is usually owned by the creator of the work— the writer, painter or musician—but like other property, it might be passed to someone else. If a journalist is employed by a newspaper then the articles he writes are usually the copyright of the newspaper owner. The copyright in a movie is owned by the film maker, not by individual writers or performers. The copyright in the book is held by the publishers who commissioned it.

In recent years it has been difficult for intellectual property law to keep pace with technological change. Video recording, satellite television, and the use of computers have expanded so rapidly that it is becoming difficult to control copying. The main emphasis of recent laws is not to prevent people from copying, but to ensure they pay for doing so.

The laws of intellectual property usually require anyone wanting to copy something to ask permission from the holder of the patent or copyright. In the case of small-scale use of artistic work, permission is often granted free of charge. For industrial use of a scientific invention, a great deal of money might need to be paid. But most legal systems allow a certain amount of copying even without asking permission.

Comprehension Questions

1.What are the main legal instruments for protecting intellectual property?

2.How is it possible to prevent copying?

3.What intellectual property should not be patented?

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4.Who usually owns the copyright?

5.What is in the focus of the recent copyright laws?

Text 10 International Humanitarian Law

International humanitarian law (IHL) - международное гуманитарное право

(МГП)

branch of law - отрасль права

armed conflict - вооруженный конфликт

means and methods of warfare – средства, методы ведения войны Geneva Conventions - Женевская конвенция

Hague Conventions - Гаагская конвенция

Case law - прецедентное право

Belligerent nations - воюющие страны Protected persons - защищенные лица

Humanitarian concerns - гуманитарные проблемы

Military necessity - военная необходимость

International humanitarian law (IHL) is the law that regulates the conduct of war (jus in bello). It is that branch of international law which seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict by protecting persons who are not participating in hostilities, and by restricting and regulating the means and methods of warfare available to combatants. IHL is inspired by considerations of humanity and the mitigation of human suffering. "It comprises a set of rules, established by treaty or custom, that seeks to protect persons and property/objects that are (or may be) affected by armed conflict and limits the rights of parties to a conflict to use methods and means of warfare of their choice". [1] It includes "the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and customary international law". [2] It defines the conduct and responsibilities of

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belligerent nations, neutral nations, and individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons, usually meaning non-combatants. It is designed to balance humanitarian concerns and military necessity, and subject’s warfare to the rule of law by limiting its destructive effect and mitigating human suffering.

Comprehension Questions

1.What is International Humanitarian Law?

2.What is inspired by International Humanitarian Law?

3.Which branches of law does International Humanitarian Law include?

4.Which conventions are included in the International Humanitarian Law?

5.Which conduct is determined by International Humanitarian Law?

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Application

Law

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