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availability. The aim is to link the development of the product with the logistical requirements so that all secondary developments can be identified and reengineered in the shortest possible time. The automotive industry has led the way in setting up processes to cut significantly the time that is required to bring a product to market from initial design.

•Product returns may come back through the existing distribution network or through a new one that is specifically set up. It may also be for product returns that will be reworked or repackaged to go into stock, product returns for subsequent disposal, or packaging returns that may be reused or scrapped. In the light of developments in environmental legislation, this is a very important area for process design or redesign.

•The provision of spares. For many companies the supply of a product or series of products is inextricably linked to the subsequent provision of spare parts to support the continuous use of the initial products. For many logistics operations, neither the physical structure nor the associated processes are really capable of providing a suitable support mechanism for spare parts as well as for original equipment. This is another example of the need for the development of processes specifically designed to undertake a particular task.

•Information management. Advances in information technology have enabled a vast amount of detailed data and information to be available and manipulated very easily. This has led some companies to recognize the need to devise suitable processes to ensure that data are collected, collated and used in a positive and organized way. For logistics detailed information can be made available for individual customers, concerning not just their product preferences but also any customer service requirements that are distribution-specific (delivery time preference, order size preference, invoicing requirements, etc). This enables a much more positive, proactive approach to be adopted when considering particular customer relationships.

There are other associated processes that could also be relevant, such as:

•supplier integration;

•quality;

•strategic management;

•maintenance;

•human resource management;

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• environmental management.

1.One of the main problems with logistics processes is that they are very often tied in with uniform functional elements of the business and so it is easy for them to operate efficiently.

2.Some parts of an operation must not sacrifice their efficiency to the greater good of the operation as a whole.

3.Processes have generally been derived to enable each separate function within an organization to undertake its particular role and they are efficient to act across all company functions as a united whole.

4.The aim of order fulfillment should be to ensure that a customer's order is received, checked, selected and delivered according to the customer's requirements, with no disruption and with complete accuracy. The process within many companies always works like this!

5.It is usually quite difficult to identify problems that occur within individual functions and then put into place control measures to overcome these problems. It can be much easier to identify problems that occur between functions.

6.Order fulfillment is concerned with the ability to turn a customer's specified requirements into an actual delivered order.

7.The consequence of introducing new products using existing processes is usually one of three possibilities.

8.The aim is to link the development of the product with the logistical requirements so that all secondary developments can be identified and reengineered at the time convenient for the supplier.

9.For many logistics operations, neither the physical structure nor the associated processes are really capable of providing a suitable support mechanism for spare parts as well as for original equipment.

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10. Some companies recognize the need to devise suitable processes to ensure that data are collected.

Text 2. Logistics process redesign.

A number of different concepts have been proposed to try to help differentiate the

type and importance of the various processes that might be relevant to any given company as it tries to position itself with its customers. The processes are as follows:

1.Basic processes: those processes that are not really recognized as essential to a business but are nevertheless a prerequisite.

2.Benchmark processes: those processes that are seen to be important to the customer and must be of at least an acceptable standard even to begin to compete satisfactorily in a given market.

3.Competitive processes: those processes that are of direct significance to the competitive area. Good practice and excellence in these processes will provide a competitive edge and ensure that the company is active and successful through its logistics operations.

An assessment of what is required in these three areas and then the identification of what is missing — the 'gap' — will enable the development processes to be identified. These are the processes on which further work is necessary to ensure that the company will achieve or maintain a suitable competitive position. It would be difficult for any company to develop a suitable process to cover all possible contingencies. Thus, it is useful to understand some of the main methods of differentiating between the various factors that are fundamental to most logistics.

Typical differentiating factors will include:

• market segmentation: by sector — engineering, automotive, chemicals, etc;

• customer types: may vary between, for example, industrial and consumer, or international, national and local;

• product groups: broken down according to a variety of categories, dependent on the industry — household, industrial, consumer, or hardware, software, spares, etc;

• customer service requirements: same day, next day, normal, special, etc;

• order type: made to order, off the shelf, postponement (partial production);

• channel type: direct, via depot, via wholesaler.

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The first step is to identify the key processes for design or redesign. This can be undertaken in a variety of different ways, but it is important to include representatives of all the main functions from within the company. Typically, some type of brainstorming exercise will provide the initial ideas, linked closely with a customer service study. As usual, it is imperative to get a clear view of customer service requirements, and these can only be truly identified through close contact with the customer. Any opportunity to benchmark against key competitors will also be advantageous.

The next stage is to map out the main elements of each process to be redesigned. The objective is to identify the key steps in each process and clarify which departments and people are involved. Key outcomes are to provide an understanding of what the process is all about, what it is trying to achieve and what some of the main problems are, and perhaps to provide an indication of some of the potential improvements that might be introduced. Allied to this initial mapping approach is the next stage, which is to undertake a much more detailed flow mapping exercise. Here, the work flow is identified in detail as it progresses through each relevant department. Each crucial part of the process is identified, together with the specified amount of time taken to complete each of these parts. Any problems are identified and noted. As already indicated, the order fulfillment process is likely to be one of the key processes that needs to be mapped. The complicated nature of this process in most companies indicates that the mapping exercise itself is likely to take a lot of time and effort. In general, the specific opportunities that should be identified are those with a high potential for positive change, and those that are either very high in cost or very high in terms of the time taken to complete that respective part of the process, or of course all of these. Additionally, it may be possible to identify some parts of the process that are entirely superfluous. This is not uncommon with many processes that have been allowed to develop over time without any specific replanning.

Once the detailed flow mapping has been completed and opportunities for improvement have been identified, it is useful to set up a specific team to undertake the remaining stages of the process redevelopment. This team should be one that has the full backing of senior management and should also be representative of the main departments to be affected by the redesign. The team should be in a position to complete any additional or more detailed mapping or measurement, as necessary.

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It should identify and measure the effects of any feasible solutions and then get overall agreement for any changes it feels should be put into practice.

The final stage, once agreement for change has been reached, is to implement any change. This may be undertaken on a pilot basis at first to test the effectiveness of the redesigned process. Subsequently, measures should be put in place to monitor the process continually into the future.

There are a number of different tools and techniques that can be used to help with logistics process redesign. These range from ones that provide assistance with the initial categorization of key process objectives to those that offer a detailed assessment of the processes themselves and thus can be used to identify opportunities for improvement. Some of these techniques have been adopted in manufacturing under the umbrella known as 'Six Sigma'. Some of the main alternatives are:

•Pareto analysis. Sometimes known as the 80/20 rule, this is a crucial method used in logistics for identifying the major elements of any business or operation. By identifying these main elements it is possible to ensure that, for analytical purposes, any assessment is based specifically on the key aspects and is not taken up with the peripheral detail. A typical Pareto example, which is common to most companies, is that 20 per cent of the product lines or SKUs (stock keeping units) are responsible for 80 per cent of the sales in value of the company's products. This type of relationship holds true for many relationships in logistics and distribution – the most important customers, the most important suppliers, etc. Thus, it is possible to identify a limited number of key elements that are representative of the main business and to concentrate any major analysis on this important 20 per cent.

•Market or customer segmentation. One of the main objectives of the design of suitable logistics processes is to ensure that they are 'customer-facing' and to align them in such a way that all customers' needs are met. Clearly, not all customers are the same and therefore not all customer requirements are the same. It is important to be able to identify different types of customers and different types of market and to adopt the appropriate service requirements to take account of these differences. Through the use of suitable customer service studies it should be possible to categorize companies according to different types of service requirement. Suitable processes can then be based around the different categories of customer or segments of the market.