The notion of social structure as relationships between different entities or groups or as enduring and relatively stable patterns of relationship emphasises the idea that society is grouped into structurally related groups or sets of roles, with different functions, meanings or purposes. One example of social structure is the idea of "social stratification", which refers to the idea that society is separated into different strata, according to social distinctions such as a race, class and gender. Social treatment of persons within various social structures can be understood as related to their placement within the various social strata.
The notion of structure as embedded institutions or norms that shape the actions of social agents is important, as structural determination may occur as the actions of people and organisations are guided partially by the underlying structures in the social system. This approach has been important in the academic literature with the rise of various forms of structuralism, and is important in the contemporary organisational context as organisation structure may determine an organisation's flexibility, capacity to change and many other factors, and is therefore an important issue to management.
Social structure may be seen to underlay important social systems including the economic system, legal system, political system, cultural system, and others. Family, religion, law, economy and class are all social structures. The social system is the parent system of those various systems that are embedded in the social system.
UNIT X
ABSOLUTE PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTION AND ITS TRANSLATION
Абсолютный причастный оборот состоит из подлежащего, выраженного существительным в общем падеже или местоимением в именительном падеже и причастия в любой его форме. В абсолютном причастном обороте союз отсутствует. От остальной части предложения этот оборот всегда отделяется запятой. На русский язык абсолютный причастный оборот переводится в зависимости от места расположения в предложении, а именно:
Если стоит в начале предложения, то переводится обстоятельственным предложением, вводимым союзами: когда, так как, если, после того как, хотя. Выбор союза диктуется контекстом. Например:
The temperature being 100°, water boiled quickly. Так как температура была 100°, вода закипела быстро.
The temperature being 10°, water boiled quickly. Хотя температура была 10°, вода закипела быстро (например, в вакууме).
Следует также иметь в виду, что если глагол-сказуемое употреблен в будущем времени, то этот оборот обычно переводится с союзом если. Например:
The temperature reaching the boiling point, the heater will be automatically switched off. Если температура достигнет точки кипения, нагреватель автоматически отключится.
Если глагол-сказуемое употреблен в настоящем или прошедшем времени то этот оборот переводится с союзами когда, так как, поскольку. Например:
The temperature reaching the boiling point, the heater was switched off. Когда (так как) температура достигла точки кипения, нагреватель был выключен.
Если абсолютный причастный оборот стоит в конце предложения, то на русский язык он переводится с союзами причем, при этом, а. Например:
This is a device used for detection and measurement of light, its principle of action being simple. Это – устройство, используемое для определения и измерения света, при этом его принцип работы прост.
Примечание 1. В абсолютном причастном обороте инговая форма глагола to be (being) может опускаться.
The work (being) finished, we went home. Когда работу закончили, мы пошли домой.
Примечание 2. Абсолютный причастный оборот может начинаться с предлога with, который не переводится.
With the experiments (having been) carried out, we started new investigations. После того как опыты были закончены, мы начали новые исследования.
Molecules are constantly in motion, the motion becoming more rapid with an increase of temperature.
Two objects being at the same temperature, the average energy of motion of their molecules is the same.
The fundamentals of electricity are the fundamentals of electronics, both being branches of physics.
In the steam engine the fuel burns comparatively slowly, the heat being used to generate steam.
Power is the basis of civilization, all industry and transport being dependent upon power in some form.
Pressure removed, the air springs back to its original position.
A long series of experiments having been carried out, they are said to have determined what equipment modifications would be necessary for operation to be continued.
The phenomenon of radioactivity having been discovered, the chemical elements were regarded as retaining their identities throughout all chemical and physical processes.
Several techniques proposed here are going to be widely used to record the information presented, photography being the most effective one.
Advantages and disadvantages in propellant systems having been thoroughly studied, a good deal of problems proved to have been answered.
The method of preparation being the best of the methods described, we used it in our work.
In a finely powdered state this substance is attacked by cold water, nitric acid reacting only slowly.
The mixture of fuel and air prior to the ignition is of heterogeneous nature, atomization, vaporization and mixing occurring simultaneously.
With the ingenuity already developed, mankind will solve the power-from-the sun problem.
The operation principle is based upon photo-electric effect, the latter arising as a result of energy transfer from light incident on a substance to electrons.
The device consists of two electrodes, one of them being coated with photo-emissive material.
The material most often used for coating the cathode is cesium silver (цезиевое серебро), the latter being particularly sensitive to the red end of the spectrum.
The anode being maintained at a positive potential with respect to the cathode, the electrons are attracted to it.
The electric current passing through the device, we can measure light intensity incident on the cathode.
Special cameras may be used to photograph the ocean bed, the photographs showing rocks and living organisms at depth.
Petroleum being of organic origin, it is still a matter of some doubt whether of vegetable or animal origin.
The occurrence of metals is unequal, some of them being plentiful, the others existing only in small quantities.
All preparations being made, they started the experiment.
With the experiment having been carried out, scientists started new investigation.
This is a device used for detection and measurements of light, its principle of action being simple.
All the waves in a laser beam having the same wavelength, it has a very definite colour, the red colour being one of the most widely seen colours in them.
The strain of the body exceeding a certain value, the body does not recover completely.
A body is under tensile stress, the forces acting upon it tending to increase its length.
An external force acting, the body changes its state of rest to a state of motion.
The elastic properties of various materials are different, the ratio of stress to strain being always the same for a given material within the elastic limit.
Обычный луч света расходится, а лазерный луч передает свою энергию в компактной форме.
Так как все волны в лазерном луче имеют одинаковую длину волны, он имеет определенный цвет, причем красный цвет является наиболее видимым.
После того как все эксперименты были выполнены, мы начали новые исследования.
Я прочитала много статей на английском языке, при этом особое внимание уделяла статьям по моей специальности.
Когда были обсуждены все вопросы, собрание закончилось.
Когда температура повышается, кинетическая энергия увеличивается.
В паровом двигателе топливо сгорает сравнительно медленно, при этом тепло используется для выработки энергии.
Так как погодные условия изменились, самолеты не смогли вылететь с аэродрома.
Когда все приготовления были сделаны, они начали эксперимент.
Так как день был теплый, мы открыли окна.
Если погода позволит, мы доберемся туда в понедельник.
Для того чтобы сфотографировать дно океана, должны быть использованы специальные камеры, при этом фотографии покажут скалы и живые организмы, находящиеся на глубине.
Так как границы Москвы были расширены, она стала городом с самой большой в мире административной областью.
Когда ученые закончили исследовательскую работу, ее результаты были опубликованы в журнале.
party-wall [`pRtIwLl] n – общая стена
copper wire tie [`kOpq`waIq`taI] – стяжка из медной проволоки
order [`Ldq] n – заказ
superstructure [`sjHpqstrAkCq] n– верхнее строение
semi-detached [,semIdI`txCt] – имеющий общую стену
scaffolding [`skxfqVldIN] n – леса, подмости
put up [`put`Ap] v – строить
wet [wet] a – зд. pазрешающий
trade [treId] n– профессия, ремесло
frame [freIm] v, n – собирать, конструировать; рама
framing [freImIN] n– стержневая конструкция, каркас
sheathing [SJDIN] n– сплошная обрешетка кровли, обшивать
shell [Sel] n – оболочка, каркас
blend with [`blend wID] v – гармонировать, сочетаться
joists [`GOIsts] n – несущие балки, брус
outbuilding [`aVt,bIldIN] n– пристройка
superficial [,sHpq`fISl] a– поверхностный
scullery [`skAlqrI] – буфетная, судомойня при кухне
larder [`lRdq] n– кладовая
closet [`klOzIt] n – стенной шкаф
butt joint [`bAtjOInt] – стыковое соединение
wall slabs [`wLlslxbz] – стеновые панели
tapered [teIpqd] a – заостренный, скошенный
upright [`ApraIt] n – стойка
mullion [`mAlIqn] n – средник (средний вертикальный брусок оконной рамы)
dry [draI] a – без строительного раствора, сухой
window heads [`wIndqVz`hedz] – оконные перемычки (верхний брус оконной рамы)
sill [sIl] n– нижняя обвязка оконной коробки
mould [mqVld] n– опалубка, форма
pitch roof [`pICrHf] – крыша со скатами (наклонная крыша)
resemble [rI`zembl] v – напоминать
prefab (prefabricated) [`prJfxb] a – сборный
Britain builds 13,000 prefab concrete houses
by Joan Littlefield
British Information Service
The AIREY prefabricated concrete houses, described by the British Ministry of Health as a permanent dwelling equal in standard and quality to a traditional type of home, is to be mass-produced and distributed to rural areas of Britain. Already 13,000 houses are on order from the present production program of 20,000.
The Airey – so-called after its designer, Sir Edwin Airey of Leeds – is a two-family, two-story semi-detached unit with a tiled pitched roof or a flat roof. It is a house of precast concrete units, economical in timber, simple to erect, requiring no cranes and little scaffolding. Each half of the two-family unit measures 27x19½ ft. in plan; a party wall separates the two halves of each house. A contractor with no previous experience in this type of construction can put up the superstructure of a pair of Airey houses in approximately 410 man-hours, including time for unloading the components at the site. Unskilled labour can be used to erect these structures since no “wet” trades are necessary. The superstructure includes framing and sheathing, forming a shell ready to receive the roof.
The Airey is traditional in structural form, resembling the simplest type of timber construction. A concrete slab forms the ground floor of the structure. Precast concrete posts and panels take the place of timber posts and sheathing, and these are vibrated and reinforced in precision metal moulds. In factories throughout England the panels are produced in various textures to blend with the rural surroundings of each group of houses. The pitched roof can be finished with tiles or other standard materials. A flat roof can also be provided as part of the structure, using metal joists.
There are both North Aspect and South Aspect type Airey houses, both erected from the same standard set of components. The total superficial floor area of the North Aspect House is 945 sq. ft. Outbuildings provide another 118 sq. ft. The two types are designed to enable the large rooms to face south, the North Aspect having its entrance hall to the road, while the hall of the South Aspect faces the end of the pair.
The hall, with adequate space for a baby carriage, leads to a small sitting room and a kitchen-living room. A small scullery contains larder, cupboard, sink, etc. Directly above it is the bathroom. Each of the three bedrooms on the second floor contains a built-in clothes closet.
The precast units weigh about 36 lb. each and can thus be easily handled. Wall slabs are secured to the concrete posts by copper ties, the vertical butt joint being backed with a bituminous composition. The slabs, 3 ft. long, 9 in. wide, approximately 1 in. thick, are laid in courses, dry, being tapered in section and having dry overlapping horizontal joints.
Windows are metal, in timber frames. The vertical uprights of the house frame continue through window openings, for which they provide the mullions, thus rendering load bearing window heads or sills unnecessary.
UNIT XI