THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION MINISTRY
ON SCIENCE AND EDUCATION
NATIONAL RESEARCH NUCLEAR UNIVERSITY MEPhI
(MOSCOW ENGINEERING PHYSICS INSTITUTE)
V.A. Apse, A.N. Shmelev, E.G. Kulikov, G.G. Kulikov
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
IN CLOSED NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE
AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS NON-PROLIFERATION
PROBLEM
This book is recommended
by the Training and Methodological Association of higher schools in the educational direction
140300 “Nuclear Physics and Technologies”
to be used as a textbook by the higher school students who are taught in the educational direction “Nuclear Physics and Tech nologies”
Moscow 2014
УДК 621.039.516.4:502.1(075) ББК 31.46я7
E58
Environmental protection in closed nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear weapons non-proliferation problem: Textbook / V.A. Apse, A.N. Shmelev, E.G. Kulikov, G.G. Kulikov. M.: NRNU MEPhI, 2014. 220 p.
The problems related with closing nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) are considered from the following two points of view, namely negative ecological effects of the open and closed NFC on the environment, and increased threats to proliferation of fissile materials which could be used to manufacture nuclear explosive devices (NED). Main stages of the closed NFC, starting from mining and primary treatment of uranium ores and ending by ultimate disposal of radioactive wastes (RAW) from radiochemical reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel (SNF), are briefly characterized. The textbook presents some results obtained in numerical evaluations of the effects produced at various stages of the closed NFC on human health, on the environment, and on a possibility to divert fissile materials from peaceful energy applications to terrorist purposes. The most promising strategies for energy utilization of reactor-grade plutonium and weapon-grade plutonium in nuclear power reactors at NPP are analyzed with accounting for potential applicability of reactor-grade plutonium as a NED charge. The textbook underlines a reasonability to use isotopic denaturing of uranium and plutonium for reliable non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.
The textbook is intended for training of the specialists in nuclear technologies, operation of NFC facilities and nuclear non-proliferation.
The textbook was prepared and published at the expense of the International Science and Technology Center (ISTC) within the frames of the Responsible Science Program of Sub-Program SB159 “Culture of Nuclear Non-Prolifera tion”.
Reviewers: Titarenko Yu.E., Doctor of Science
Zagrebayev A.M., Doctor of Science
ISBN 978-5-7262-1976-9
© V.A. Apse, A.N. Shmelev,
G.G. Kulikov, E.G. Kulikov. 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS |
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Introduction............................................................................................ |
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6 |
Control questions to Introduction .......................................................... |
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23 |
Chapter 1. Main stages of the closed nuclear fuel cycle................... |
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24 |
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1.1. Mining and primary treatment of uranium ore ............................... |
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24 |
1.2. Conversion and isotopic enrichment of natural uranium…............34 |
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1.2.1. Separation work………………………………. ................ |
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..38 |
1.2.2. Properties of uranium hexafluoride and technologies |
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for its production…………………................ |
......................44 |
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1.2.3. Uranium enrichment by gas diffusion technology |
...............46 |
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1.2.4. Uranium enrichment in gas centrifuges……. .... |
..................51 |
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1.2.5. Separation nozzle technology…………………......... |
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..........54 |
1.2.6. Laser technologies of isotope separation………. |
. ...............55 |
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1.2.7. Chemical methods of isotope separation…….... |
..................57 |
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1.2.8. Plasma method of isotope separation………...... |
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.................58 |
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1.3. Technologies for fabrication of fuel rods and fuel assemblies..….60 |
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1.3.1. Pelletization of uranium dioxide .......................................... |
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61 |
1.3.2. Fabrication of fuel rods and fuel assemblies........................ |
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66 |
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1.4. Use of nuclear fuel in nuclear power reactors ................................ |
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68 |
1.4.1. Purposes of nuclear reactor refueling................................... |
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68 |
1.4.2. Strategies of nuclear reactor refueling ................................. |
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70 |
1.4.3. Technologies of nuclear reactor refueling ........................... |
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73 |
1.4.4. Transportation of spent nuclear fuel .................................... |
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78 |
1.5. Radiochemical reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel ......................... |
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79 |
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1.5.1. Classification of SNF reprocessing technologies................. |
81 |
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1.5.2. Main stages of aqueous |
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solvent-extraction technology PUREX .......................................... |
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82 |
1.6. Treatment and ultimate disposal of radioactive wastes |
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92 |
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1.6.1. Classification of RAW ......................................................... |
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93 |
1.6.2. Treatment of high-level RAW……….............. |
....................94 |
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1.6.3. Ultimate disposal of high-level RAW |
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in geological formations…………....................... |
..........................97 |
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1.6.4. Treatment of liquid middleand low-level RAW .............. |
101 |
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1.6.5. Treatment of gaseous RAW ............................................... |
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102 |
1.6.6. Treatment of solid RAW…………………............... |
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......... 105 |
3
Control questions to Chapter 1………………………………. ........ |
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...107 |
Chapter 2. Negative ecological effects at various stages |
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of the closed nuclear fuel cycle……. ................................................ |
110 |
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2.1. Natural radiation background ....................................................... |
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111 |
2.2. Ecological effects of various NFC stages ..................................... |
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113 |
2.2.1. Mining and hydrometallurgical treatment |
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of uranium ore……………………. ............................ |
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.................113 |
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2.2.2. Affinage of uranium concentrate, |
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isotopic uranium enrichment and fabrication of fuel rods………114 |
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2.2.3. Use of nuclear fuel at NPP……. ............... |
.........................115 |
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2.2.4. Radiochemical SNF reprocessing…………… ......... |
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.........116 |
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2.2.5. Treatment and disposal of radiowastes……………. . |
........117 |
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2.2.6. Total ecological effects of NFC ......................................... |
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118 |
2.3. Some ecological problems in the USA ......................................... |
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119 |
2.4. Principle of radiation equivalency ................................................ |
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121 |
2.5. Two approaches to evaluating the radiation effects |
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on human organism.............................................................................. |
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123 |
Control questions to Chapter 2……………………………… ......... |
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...125 |
Chapter 3. Problems of fissile materials non-proliferation |
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at various stages of the closed NFC……………..............................126 |
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3.1.Factors of NM attractiveness at various NFC stages……………128
3.2.Comparison of reactor types from viewpoint of
nuclear non-proliferation……….. ..................... |
..................................132 |
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3.3. Advanced proliferation-resistant SNF reprocessing |
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technologies…………………. ............................... |
.............................137 |
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3.3.1. Aqueous SAFAR reprocessing technology........................ |
137 |
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3.3.2.Non-aqueous (dry) technologies for SNF reprocessing .…141
3.4.Control of NM non-proliferation at SNF reprocessing plants ..…148
Control questions to Chapter 3………………………………. ........ |
...152 |
Chapter 4. Explosive properties of reactor-grade plutonium |
.......153 |
4.1.Applicability of reactor-grade plutonium for NED manufacturing………………………………………. ..........155
4.2.Energy yield of NED with reactor-grade plutonium………….....156
Control questions to Chapter 4………………………………. ........ |
...163 |
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Chapter 5. Utilization of reactor-grade plutonium |
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and weapon-grade plutonium in nuclear power reactors………..164 |
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5.1. Utilization of weapon-grade plutonium |
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in nuclear power reactors…………………………................ |
.............164 |
5.2. Recycle of reactor-grade plutonium in nuclear power reactors…168 |
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Control questions to Chapter 5………………………………. ........ |
...170 |
Chapter 6. Uranium and plutonium denaturing |
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as a way towards nuclear weapons non-proliferation.................... |
172 |
6.1. NM proliferation protection in NFC……………....... |
..................172 |
6.2. Nuclear properties of 232U and 231Pa ............................................. |
175 |
6.3. NM proliferation protection in open NFC .................................... |
180 |
6.3.1. Uranium denaturing as a way for formation |
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of internal α-radiation source ....................................................... |
180 |
6.3.2. Evolution of neutron background in re-enrichment |
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of denatured uranium, evaluation of energy yield ....................... |
182 |
6.3.3.Higher fuel burn-up of proliferation-proof LWR fuel at introducing 231Pa……………………………….......................185
6.3.4.Neutron-multiplying properties
in nuclide transformation chains……………………….. ........ |
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....186 |
6.3.5. Reasonability of 231Pa introduction |
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in a thermal neutron spectrum…………………............... |
...........187 |
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6.3.6. Reasonability of 231Pa introduction |
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in a resonance neutron spectrum .................................................. |
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190 |
6.3.7. Effects of 231Pa introduction on reactor safety................... |
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192 |
6.4. NM proliferation protection in the closed NFC............................ |
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194 |
6.4.1. Radiation protection of MOX-fuel, initiative GNEP |
.........195 |
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6.4.2. Plutonium denaturing as a way for |
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proliferation protection of the closed NFC .................................. |
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196 |
6.4.3.Effects of 237Np and 238Pu introduction into MOX-fuel composition on proliferation resistance of plutonium……….. ...197
6.4.4.Proliferation resistance of denatured plutonium……….. ..200
6.4.5. Higher fuel burn-up in denatured (Np-U-Pu) NFC ............ |
213 |
Control questions to Chapter 6 ............................................................ |
217 |
List of references................................................................................ |
218 |
5 |
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