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Unit 1

Present Simple and Present Continuous

We use the present simple for:

ñfacts and permanent states. Frank works for an insurance company.

ñgeneral truths and laws of nature. Oil floats on water.

ñhabits and routines (with always, usually etc). Sheusually goestothesupermarketonThursdays.

ñtimetables and programmes (in the future). His flight arrives at six o’clock tomorrow morning.

ñsporting commentaries, reviews and narrations.

Beckham wins the ball, crosses and Owen scores.

ñfeelings and emotions. I love Venice, it’s a beautiful city.

The time expressions we use with the present simple are: Usually, often, always, every day/week/month/year etc, in the morning/afternoon/evening, at night/the weekend, on Fridays, etc

We use the present continuous (to be + verb -ing):

ñfor actions taking place at or around the moment of speaking. The kids are watching a video in the living room.

ñfor temporary situations. We are decorating the kitchen this week.

ñfor fixed arrangements in the near future. I’m going to a party at Jack’s house tonight.

ñfor currently changing and developing situations. The sea is becoming more and more polluted.

ñwith adverbs such as always to express anger or irritation at a repeated action. She is always talking on the phone when I want to use it.

The time expressions we use with the present continuous are: Now, at the moment, at present, these days, nowadays, still, today, tonight, etc

State Verbs

Stative verbs are verbs which describe a state rather than an action, and so do not usually have a continuous tense. These verbs are:

ñverbs of the senses (see, hear, smell, taste, feel, look, sound, seem, appear etc) The material feels really soft.

ñverbs of perception (know, believe, understand, realise, remember, forget etc) Iknowexactlywhatshemeans.

ñverbs which express feelings and emotions (like, love, hate, enjoy, prefer, detest, desire, want etc) Helen enjoys going to the theatre.

ñand some other verbs (be, contain, include, belong, fit, need, matter, cost, own, want, owe, weigh, wish, have, keep etc) Thatjumpersheboughtmedoesn’t fit very well.

Some of these verbs can be used in continuous tenses but with a difference in meaning.

Note:

ñThe verb enjoy can be used in continuous tenses to express a specific preference.

Doug really enjoys going to the theatre. (general preference)

BUT: She’senjoyingthepartyverymuch. (specific preference)

ñThe verbs look (when we refer to somebody’s appearance), feel (experience a particular emotion), hurt and ache can be used in simple or continuous tenses with no difference in meaning.

I feel very happy. = I am feeling very happy.

Adverbs of Frequency

These include always, frequently, often, once, twice, sometimes, never, usually, ever, hardly ever, rarely, occasionally etc.

ñAdverbs of frequency are normally placed before the main verb. I rarely drive to work. I hardly ever go to the theatre.

ñHowever, adverbs of frequency are placed after the verb to be and after auxiliary verbs. Janet is often late for meetings. I have always wanted to go to Cuba.

Present Perfect

We use the present perfect (have + past participle) for:

ñan action that happened at an unstated time in the past. The emphasis is on the action, the time that it occurred is unimportant or unknown. I have washed the car. Mary has been to Italy twice.

ñan action which started in the past and continues up to the present, especially with stative verbs (see above) such as be, have, like, know, etc. I have known her for six years.

ña recently completed action. I have finished my geography essay.

ñpersonal experiences or changes. She has dyed her hair.

The time expressions we use with the present perfect are: for, since, already, always, just, ever, never, so far, today, this week/month etc, how long, lately, recently, still (in negations), etc

Present Perfect Continuous

We use the present perfect continuous (have + been + verb -ing):

ñto put emphasis on the duration of an action which started in the past and continues up to the present. We have been cleaning the house all morning.

ñfor an action which started in the past and lasted for some time. It may still be continuing or has finished already with the result visible in the present. He’s tired because he has been working really hard recently.

ñto express anger, irritation, or annoyance. She has been using my computer without asking me.

ñfor repeated actions in the past continuing to the present. She has lost weight because she has been going to the gym every night after work.

The time expressions we use with the present perfect continuous are: for, since, how long ...?, all day/morning/ month etc, lately, recently

Note: with the verbs live, work, teach and feel we can use the present perfect or the present perfect continuous with no difference in meaning. He has lived/has been living in Liverpool for the last five years.

Prepositions of Place

Prepositions of place are prepositions which describe where someone or something is. These prepositions include:

Unit 2

Past Simple

We use the past simple:

ñfor an action that occurred at a definite time (stated or implied) in the past. The postman delivered the parcel at 8 o’clock this morning.

ñfor actions that happened immediately after one another in the past. She opened the curtains and looked out of the window.

ñfor habits or states which are now finished. Mr Jones worked in a factory when he was younger.

Note that used to can also be used instead of the past

simple for habits/repeated actions in the past (see p. 168).

The time expressions we use with the past simple are: yesterday, then, when, How long ago ...?, last night/week/ month/year/Friday/October etc, three days/weeks etc ago, in 1999 etc

Past Continuous

We use the past continuous:

ñfor an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. We use the past continuous for the action in progress (the longer action) and the past simple for the action which interrupted it (shorter action). We were playing football in the garden when it started to rain.

ñfor two or more simultaneous actions in the past. I was cooking dinnerinthekitchenwhileMarywas watching TVin the living room.

ñfor an action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. We don’t mention when the action started or finished. At11o’clocklastnightIwas driving homefromthe party.

ñto describe the atmosphere, setting etc and to give background information to a story. The birds were singing and the sun was shining, I was sitting outside in the garden when something strange happened ...

Note: When there are two past continuous forms in a sentence with the same subject we can avoid repetition by just using the present participle (-ing form) and leave out the verb to be. He was walking along, he was whistling a tune. = He was walking along, whistling a tune.

The time expressions we use with the past continuous are: while,when,as,allmorning/evening/day/weeketc

Past Perfect

We use the past perfect (had + past participle):

ñfor an action which happened before another past action or before a stated time in the past. Lucy had finished her homework by six o’clock.

ñfor an action which finished in the past and whose result was visible at a later point in the past. He had sprained his ankle a few days earlier and he was still limping slightly.

ñfor a general situation in the past. Everything had seemed normal at first.

The time expressions we use with the past perfect are: before, after, already, just, for, since, till/until, when, by the time, never etc

Past Perfect Continuous

We use the past perfect continuous:

ñto put emphasis on the duration of an action which started and finished in the past, before another action or stated time in the past, usually with for or since. I had been walking for about half an hour when I realised I was completely lost.

ñfor an action which lasted for some time in the past and whose result was visible in the past. She had been swimming and her hair was still wet.

The time expressions we use with the past perfect continuous are: for, since, how long, before, until etc

Used to

We use used to + infinitive to refer to past habits or states.

In such cases used to can be replaced by the past simple with no change in meaning. When the children were younger they walked/used to walk to school every day.

But for an action that happened at a definite time in the past we use the past simple not used to. Iwalkedtoworkyesterday. (NOT: I used to walk to work yesterday.)

Time expressions to talk about the past:

Unit 3

Future Simple

We use the future simple (will + bare infinitive) for:

ñdecisions made at the moment of speaking. It’s hot in here, I’ll open a window.

ñpredictions about the future, based on what we think, believe or imagine, using the verbs think, believe, expect etc, the expressions be sure, be afraid etc, and the adverbs probably, certainly, perhaps etc. He will probably call you later.

ñpromises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes, and offers. Will you help me clean up this mess?

ñactions, events, situations which will definitely happen in the future and which we can’t control. Sue will be three years old in June.

Be going to

We use be going to:

ñfor plans, intentions or ambitions for the future. I’m going to be a doctor when I finish university.

ñactions we have already decided to do in the near future. Steve is going to work with his dad during the summer holidays.

ñpredictions based on what we can see or what we know, especially when there is evidence that something will happen. The sky is very clear, it’s going to be cold tonight.

The time expressions we use with the future simple and be going to are: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, tonight, soon, next week/month/year/summer etc, in a week/month etc

Future Continuous

We use the future continuous (will be + present participle of the verb):

ñfor actions which will be in progress at a stated future time. I’ve got a new job, this time next month I’ll be working in the bank.

ñfor actions which will definitely happen in the future as the result of a routine or arrangement. I will be visiting my grandparents at the weekend.

ñwhen we ask politely about someone’s plans for the near future. Will you be finishing with that book soon?

For future perfect and future perfect continuous see unit 10.

Time clauses when talking about the future:

When we are using the present simple or present perfect, but NOT future forms, we use words and expressions such as while, before, after, until/till, as, when, whenever, once, as soon as, as long as, by the time, etc to introduce time clauses. By the time weget there the film will have started. (NOT: By the time we will get there ...)

We also use the present simple and present perfect but NOT future forms after words and expressions such as unless, if, suppose/supposing, in case etc. Takeanumbrella in case itrains later.(NOT:...in case itwill rain later.)

We use future forms with:

ñwhen - when it is used as a question word. When will you be going shopping next?

ñif/whether – after expressions which show uncertainty/ ignorance etc, such as I don’t know, I doubt, I wonder, I’m not sure, etc. I don’t know whether he will get the job.

Type 0/1 Conditionals

Type 0 conditionals are used to express a general truth or a scientific fact. In this type of conditional we can use when instead of if.

If/When you mix red and yellow paint, you get orange.

Type 1 conditionals are used to express a real or very probable situation in the present or future.

If I finish this essay tonight, I will/might/etc go to the cinema with Julie.

When the hypothesis comes before the main clause, we separate them with a comma. When the main clause comes before the if-clause, then we do not use a comma to separate them.

Note: With type 1 conditionals we can use unless + affirmative verb (= if + negative verb). Iwillnotbeabletocome unless Jackgives mealift.(= if Jack does not give me a lift, ...)

Clauses of purpose

Clauses of purpose are used to explain why somebody does something. They are introduced with the following words/ expressions.

ñto - infinitive – Colin went to the library to borrow a book.

ñin order to/so as to + infinitive (formal) – The boss requested that everyone work overtime in order to finish the project on time.

ñso that + can/will (present/future reference) – I will give you my number so that you can call me if there are any problems.

ñso that + could/would (past reference) – He left at 5 o’clock, so that he would be at the airport in plenty of time.

ñin case + present tense (present or future reference) –

Leave the answer machine on in case anyone calls when we are out.

ñin case + past tense (past reference) – She had made some sandwiches in case we got hungry.

Note: In case is never used with will or would.

ñfor + noun (expresses the purpose of an action) – We went to Marco’s for a pizza.

ñfor + -ing form (expresses the purpose of something or its function) – Microwaves are used for heating up food.

ñwith a view to + -ing form – The Wilson’s bought the old farmhouse with a view to renovating it.

We can express negative purpose by:

ñin order not to/so as not to + infinitive – Iwrotealistof the things I had to do so as not to forget anything.

ñprevent + noun/pronoun + (from) + -ing form – The teachercoveredupwhatwaswrittenontheboardto prevent the students from reading it.

The definite article the

We use the:

ñwith nouns when talking about something specific. Jo owns a car and a motorbike. The car is blue and the motorbike is red.

ñwith nouns that are unique. (the sun, the Earth etc)

ñwith names of newspapers (the Times), cinemas (the Odeon), theatres (the Empire), museums/art galleries (the

Louvre), ships (the Titanic), organisations (the United Nations).

ñwith the names of rivers (the Thames), groups of Islands (the Seychelles), mountain ranges (the Pyrenees), deserts

(the Kalahari), oceans (the Pacific) canals (the Panama canal), countries when they include words such as States, Kingdom, Republic (the USA), and names or nouns with of (theHousesofParliament), in geographical terms such as the Antarctic/Arctic/equator, the North of Spain, the North/East/South/West.

ñwith the names of musical instruments and dances (the piano, the tango).

ñwith the names of families (the Smiths) and nationalities ending in -sh, -ch, or -ese (theChinese). Other nationalities can be used with or without the (theEgyptians/Egyptians).

ñwith titles (the ambassador, the President) but not with titles including a proper name (Prince Charles).

ñwith adjectives/adverbs in the superlative form (the best book I have ever read) but when most is followed by a noun it doesn’t take the (most people enjoy going to the cinema).

ñwith the words day, morning, afternoon and evening.

It was late in the afternoon and the sun was starting to set.

BUT: at night, at noon, at midnight, by day/night

ñwith historical periods/events (thelastIce Age, theVietnam war) BUT: World War I

ñwith the words only, last and first (used as adjectives).

She was the only one who understood me.

ñwith the words station, cinema, theatre, library, shop, coast, sea(side), beach, country(side), city, jungle, world, ground, weather. We went for a drive along the coast.

We do not use the:

ñwith uncountable and plural nouns when talking about something in general. Cars release harmful gases into the atmosphere. Coffee is a very popular drink.

ñwith proper nouns. Harry works in a bookshop.

ñwith the names of sports, games, activities, days, months, celebrations, colours, drinks and meals. We are going to have dinner on Monday.

ñwith languages unless they are followed by the word language. Veronica speaks Spanish, Italian and English fluently. BUT: The French language is spoken in parts of Canada.

ñwith the names of countries which don’t include the word State, Kingdom or Republic. Germany, India,

Australia. BUT there are some exceptions: the Netherlands, the Gambia, the Vatican.

ñwith the names of streets (Oxford Street, Penny Lane BUT: the M6, the A42), squares (Trafalgar Square), bridges

(London Bridge BUT: the Golden Gate Bridge), parks

(Central Park), railway stations (Euston, King’s Cross), mountains (Mount Everest), individual islands (Sardinia), lakes (Lake Windermere) and continents (Africa).

ñwith possessive adjectives or the possessive case. That is my car.

ñwith the names of restaurants, shops, banks, hotels etc which are named after the people who started them

(Harrods, Luigi’s Restaurant).

ñwith the words bed, hospital, college, court, prison, school, university when we refer to the purpose for which they exist. The injured girl had to be taken to hospital. BUT: We went to the hospital to visit Tina.

ñwith the word work (= place of work). I need to be at work by 10 o’clock.

ñwith the words home, mother, father etc when we talk about our own home/parents.

ñwith by + means of transport (by bus/ferry/train/car etc) They travelled to Glasgow by train.

ñwith the names of illnesses. He’s got pneumonia. BUT: flu/the flu, measles/the measles, mumps/the mumps.

Unit 4

Infinitive

The to-infinitive is used:

ñto express purpose. Carl called to talk about our plans for tomorrow.

ñafter certain verbs (agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, plan, promise, refuse, etc). They expect to finish the building work this afternoon.

ñafter would like, would prefer, would love etc to express a specific preference. I would prefer to go out for dinner tonight.

ñafter adjectives which describe feelings/emotions (happy, sad, glad, etc); express willingness/unwillingness (willing, eager, reluctant etc); refer to a person’s character (clever, kind etc) and the adjectives lucky and fortunate. I was very sad to hear that Carol had lost her job.

Note: With adjectives that refer to character we can also use an impersonal construction. It was kind of you to help Andrea with her essay.

ñafter too/enough. It isn’t warm enough to go out without a coat.

ñto talk about an unexpected event usually with only. I finally arrived at the airport only to find that my flight had been cancelled.

ñwith it + be + adjective/noun. It was easy to find the house after all.

ñafter be + first/second/next/last etc. She was the first person to congratulate me after the game was over.

ñafter verbs and expressions such as ask, learn, explain, decide, find out, want, want to know etc when they are followed by a question word. The maths teacher explained how to solve the problem.