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ñWhen the direct question begins with a question word (who, where, how, when, what, etc), the reported question is introduced with the same question word.

What time is it, please? (direct question)

She asked me what the time was. (reported question)

ñWhen the direct question begins with an auxiliary (be, do, have), or a modal verb (can, may, etc), then the reported question is introduced with if or whether.

Are there any oranges left? (direct question)

He asked me if/whether there were any oranges left.

(reported question)

ñIn reported questions, the verb is in the affirmative. The question mark and words/expressions such as please, well, oh, etc are omitted. The verb tenses, pronouns and time expressions change as in statements.

Can you tell me when the next bus to Leeds is, please? (direct question)

She asked me when the next bus to Leeds was. (reported question)

Reported Orders

To report orders we use the introductory verbs order or tell + sb + (not) to - infinitive.

Cease fire! (direct order)

He ordered them to cease fire. (reported order) Stop talking! (direct order)

She told me to stop talking. (reported order)

Unit 8

Reported Commands, Requests, Suggestions, etc

To report commands, requests, suggestions, instructions etc. we use a special introductory verb followed by a toinfinitive, -ing form, or that-clause, depending on the introductory verb.

*The verbs marked with an asterisk can also be followed by a that-clause in reported speech. He claimed that he knew nothing about it. etc

Note: To report negative commands and requests we usually use not + to-infinitive.

Direct: Mum said, "Don’t touch the iron, it’s hot!"

Reported: Mum told us not to touch the iron because it was hot.

ñIn conversation we use a mixture of statements, commands and questions. When we turn them into reported speech, we use and, as, adding that and he/she added that, because, but, since etc. Words such as oh!, oh dear, well etc are omitted in reported speech.

Direct: "Oh! That’s a nice dress," Cathy said to me, "It suits you perfectly."

Reported: Cathy said that it was a nice dress and added that it suited me perfectly.

Countable – Uncountable Nouns

ñCountable nouns are those that can be counted (one apple, two apples etc). Uncountable nouns are those that cannot be counted (water, bread etc). Uncountable nouns take a singular verb and are not used with a/an.

Groups of uncountable nouns include:

ñmass nouns (orange juice, butter, sugar etc)

ñsubjects of study (chemistry, history, maths etc)

ñsports (football, rugby, cricket)

ñlanguages (Italian, Japanese, Arabic)

ñdiseases (chickenpox, malaria, asthma)

ñnatural phenomena (rain, snow, mist)

ñcollective nouns (baggage, money, furniture)

ñcertain other nouns (accommodation, anger, luck)

Some/Any/No

Some, any and no are used with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns. some water, some potatoes.

ñSome and its compounds (somebody, someone, something, somewhere etc) are normally used in affirmative sentences. There is some water left in the bottle.

ñSome and its compounds are also used in interrogative sentences when we expect a positive answer, for example when we make an offer or request. Would you like something to eat?

ñAny and its compounds (anyone, anything etc) are usually used in interrogative sentences. Has anyone seen Pat today? Not any is used in negative sentences. There isn’t any petrol in the tank. Any and its compounds can also be used with negative words such as without, never, rarely. I have never met anyone like her before.

ñWhen any and its compounds are used in affirmative sentences there is a difference in meaning. We can go anywhere you like. (it doesn’t matter where)

Anyone could have told you that. (it doesn’t matter who)

ñNo and its compounds are used instead of not any in negative sentences. Dora didn’t do anything. (= She did nothing) Therewasn’tanybodythere.(= There was nobody there)

Note: We use a singular verb with compounds of some, any and no. There is nothing we can do.

Every/Each

Each and every are used with singular countable nouns. We normally use each when we refer to two people or things and every when we refer to three or more people or things.

She was carrying a suitcase in each hand. Every house in the street has a blue front door.

ñThe pronouns everyone, everybody, everything and the adverb everywhere are used in affirmative, interrogative and negative sentences, and are followed by a singular verb. We normally use every when we are thinking of people or things together, in a group to mean all, everyone etc. Every person in the room was listening to the speech. (all together). Whereas we normally use each when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time. He spoke to each person in turn. (one at a time)

ñWe use every to show how often something happens.

The train leaves every hour.

ñWe use every but not each with words and expressions such as almost, nearly, practically, and without exception. In winter it rains almost every day.

A few/Few – A little/Little

A few and few are used with plural countable nouns. A little and little are used with uncountable nouns.

ñA few means not many but enough. Wehaveafewhours before we need to be at the station, shall we go and get something to eat. Few means hardly any, almost none and can be used with very for emphasis. Therewere(very) few people left in the office after 5 o’clock.

ñA little means not much, but enough. There is a little coffee left, would you like another cup?

ñLittle means hardly any, almost none and can be used with very for emphasis. There is (very) little milk left. I’ll go and buy some.

A lot of/lots of – much – many

ñA lot of/lots of are used with both plural countable and uncountable nouns. They are normally used in affirmative sentences. The of is omitted when a lot/lots are not followed by a noun. Were there a lot/lots of apples on the tree? Yes there were lots.

ñMuch and many are usually used in negative or interrogative sentences. Much is used with uncountable nouns and many is used with plural countable nouns.

There aren’t many parks in the centre of the city. Did you spend much money at the market?

ñHow much and how many are used in questions and negations.

How much + uncountable noun → amount How many + countable noun → number

How much salt shall I put in the sauce? How many children does she have?

ñToo much is used with uncountable nouns. It has a negative meaning and shows that there is more of something than is wanted or needed. I couldn’t sleep, the workmen were making too much noise.

ñToo many is used with plural countable nouns. It has the same negative meaning as too much. It was very crowded. There were too many people there.

ñWe use many/much/some/any/most/(a) few/(a) little/ several/one/two etc. + of followed by the/that/this/ these/those and then a noun when talking about a specific group. Some of the houses in that street are very expensive. (houses in that street) but: Some houses are very expensive. (houses in general)

Unit 9

Type 2 and 3 Conditionals

ñConditionals Type 2 (unreal present) are used to express imaginary situations, which are contrary to facts in the present, and, therefore, are unlikely to happen in the present or the future. We can use either were or was for all persons in the if-clause. We can also use the structure If I were you ... to give advice.

If I watched that serial, I would know what they were talking about.

If Jackwas playing today, we would have amuchbetterchance ofwinning.

If I were you, I would tell her the truth.

ñConditionals Type 3 (unreal past) are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in the past. They are also used to express regrets or criticism.

If they had invited me, I would have gone to the party.

If it hadn’t been raining today, we would have gone to the beach.

Wishes

ñ We can use wish /if only to express a wish.

Note: ñ If only is used in exactly the same way as wish but it is more emphatic or more dramatic.

ñWe can use were instead of was after wish and if only. I wish I were/was on holiday now.

Had Better/ Would Rather

Had better (= it would be good to) is used to give strong or urgent advice. Had better cannot be used in the past or the comparative.

ñhad better + a bare infinitive → immediate future

You had better apologise to Sonya.

Would rather (= would prefer to) expresses preference. When the subject of would rather is also the subject of the following verb, we use the following constructions:

ñwould rather + present bare infinitive → present/future.

I’d rather help you with that later.

ñwould rather + present perfect bare infinitive → past

I went to the club last night but I’d rather have stayed at home.

ñwould rather + bare infinitive + than (+ bare infinitive)

Since it’s such a beautiful day, I’d rather play football than (play) squash today.

When the subject of would rather is different from the subject of the following verb, we use the following constructions;

ñwould rather + past tense → present/future

I’d rather John told you about the plan because it was his idea.

ñWould rather + past perfect → past

I’d rather we had left home a bit earlier, then we wouldn’t have been caught in the rush hour traffic.

Unit 10

Future Perfect → will have + past participle

ñWe use the future perfect for actions that will have finished before a stated time in the future. We will have finished our course by the end of June.

The time expressions we use with the future perfect are: Before, by, by then, by the time, until/till (only in negative sentences).

Future Perfect Continuous → will have been + verb + -ing

ñWe use the future perfect continuous to emphasise the duration of an action up to a certain time in the future. The future perfect continuous is used with: by…for. By theendoftheMayLukewill have been living in Manchester for five years.

Linking Words

Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts of sentences.

Positive addition:

and, both … and, too, besides (this/that), moreover, what is more, in addition (to), also, as well as (this/that), furthermore etc. The assistant was both friendly and helpful.

Negative addition:

neither (... nor), nor, neither, either etc. Neither Samnor Iwent to the meeting.

Contrast:

but, although, in spite of, despite, while, whereas, however, even though, on the other hand, yet, still etc. Even though we playedverywellwestilllostthematch.

Giving examples:

such as, like, for example, for instance, especially, in particular etc. The weather has been excellent this week. Saturday in particular was very hot and sunny.

Cause/Reason:

as, because, because of, since, for this reason, due to, so, as a result (of) etc. He had to take the bus because his car had broken down.

Condition:

if, whether, only if, in case of, in case, provided (that), providing (that), unless, as/so long as, otherwise, or (else), on condition (that) etc. Amy’s dad said she could go to the party as long as she was home by 11 o’clock.

Purpose:

to, so that, so as (not) to, in order (not) to, in order that, in case etc. Dan went to the bank to get some money.

Effect/Result:

such/so … that, so, consequently, as a result, therefore, for this reason, etc. She doesn’t really like her flat so she is looking for somewhere else to live.

Time:

when, whenever, as, as soon as, while, before, until/till, after, since etc. We’ll go out as soon as you get here.

Exception:

except (for), apart from etc. I’ve paid all of the bills except for the electricity one.

Relatives:

who, whom, whose, which, what, that. That’s the girl who works in the bookshop.

Listing points/events

To begin: initially, first, at first, firstly, to start/begin with, first of all etc. Firsthepackedhissuitcase.

To continue: secondly, after this/that, second, afterwards, then, next etc. Next he called for a taxi.

To conclude: finally, lastly, in the end, at last, eventually, etc. Eventually we left for the station.

Summarising: in conclusion, in summary, to sum up, on the whole, all in all, altogether, in short etc. All in all it was one of the best holidays of my life.

Both/Neither – All/None – Either

ñBoth refers to two people, things or groups. It has a positive meaning and is followed by a plural verb. Both men used to live in Brighton.

ñNeither refers to two people, things or groups and has a negative meaning. It is followed by a singular countable noun. However the Neither of + plural noun phrase structure can be followed by either a singular or plural verb in the affirmative. Neither shop had the CD I was looking for. Neither of them has been to Paris before.

ñAll refers to more than two people, things or groups. It has a positive meaning and is followed by a plural verb.

All of the rooms have en-suite bathrooms and air conditioning.

ñBoth/All can go (a) after the verb to be or (b) after an auxiliary verb but before the main verb. Theyareboth/all very tired. They have all/both been working very hard.

ñWhole is used with singular countable nouns . We use a/the/this/my etc + whole + noun. Whole is not used with uncountable nouns. She ate the whole pizza. She ate all of the pizza. She spent all of her money. NOT: She spent the whole of her money.

All + day/morning/week/year etc = the whole + day/ morning/week/year etc. She’s been working in the restaurant all morning/the whole morning.

ñNone of refers to two or more people, groups or things and has a negative meaning. It is used with nouns or object pronouns and is followed by either a singular or a plural verb. None of the islands is inhabited.

ñEither refers to two people, things or groups and is followed by a singular countable noun. However the

Either of + plural noun phrase structure can be followed by either a singular or plural verb. Either dress is fine. Either of the dresses is/are fine.

We can use not … either (of) instead of neither (of).

Either can also be used at the end of a negative sentence. “I have never seen Andy’s flat.” “I have never seen it either.”

ñBoth ... and is followed by a plural verb. Both Rob and John go to the café every day.

Neither … nor/Either … or are followed by either a singular or plural verb. Neither Italy nor Spain is/are going to sign the treaty.

Rules for Punctuation

Capital Letters

A capital letter is used:

ñto begin a sentence. This is a pen.

ñfor days of the week, months and public holidays.

Monday, January, New Year

ñfor names of people and places. My friend’s name is Mary and she’s from Leeds, England.

ñfor people’s titles. Mr and Mrs Smith; Dr Parker; Professor Jones etc

ñfor nationalities and languages. They are Portuguese. He’s fluent in Spanish and Russian.

Note: The personal pronoun I is always a capital letter.

Tony and I are going out tonight.

Full Stop (.)

A full stop is used:

ñto end a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation. We’re having a wonderful time. We wish you were here.

Comma (,)

A comma is used:

ñto separate words in a list. We need butter, milk, flour and eggs.

ñto separate a non-identifying relative clause (i.e. a clause giving extra information which is not essential to the meaning of the main clause) from the main clause.

Steve, who is a teacher, lives in Australia.

ñafter certain linking words/phrases (e.g. in addition to this, moreover, for example, however, in conclusion, etc). Moreover, Sue is very kind to children.

ñwhen if-clauses begin sentences. If you have any queries, don’thesitatetoask.

Note: No comma is used, however, when the if-clause follows the main clause.

ñto separate question tags from the rest of the sentence.

Mr Jones is your physics teacher, isn’t he?

Question Mark (?)

A question mark is used:

ñ to end a direct question. Where is Tanya?

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark is used:

ñto end an exclamatory sentence, i.e. a sentence showing admiration, surprise, joy, anger, etc. That’s not true! What horrible news!

Quotation Marks (‘ ’ “ ”)

Quotation marks are used:

ñin direct speech to report the exact words someone said. ‘The bus arrives at 11:45am,’ said Tony. “What’s your address?” he asked her.

Colon (:)

A colon is used:

ñto introduce a list. There were three of us on the train: my sister, my friend Peter and me.

Brackets ( )

Brackets are used:

ñto separate extra information from the rest of the sentence. The most popular magazines (i.e. National Geographic, Focus, Fair Lady, etc) can be found almost anywhere in the world.

Apostrophe (‘)

An apostrophe is used:

ñin short forms to show that one or more letters or numbers have been left out. I’m(= I am) sendingyou... He left for Russia in the spring of ’99. (=1999)

ñbefore or after the possessive -s to show ownership or the relationship between people.

Tom’s cat, my sister’s husband (singular noun + ’s) my grandparents’ friends (plural noun + ’) men’s hats (Irregular plural + ’s)