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Note: why is followed by subject + verb, NOT an infinitive. I wonder why she didn’t tell us.

ñin the expressions to tell you the truth, to be honest, to sum up, to begin with etc. To tell you the truth I didn’t expect that you would come.

Note: If two to-infinitives are linked by and or or the to of the second infinitive can be omitted. I would like to go and see what is happening for myself.

The infinitive without to is used:

ñafter modal verbs. Beth can speak German and Italian.

ñafter the verbs let, make, see, hear, and feel. They made him fill out a lot of forms. BUT: we use the toinfinitive after be made, be heard, be seen etc (passive form). He was made to fill out a lot of forms.

Note: When see, hear and watch are followed by an -ing form there is no change in the passive. He saw me talking to Anna. I was seen talking to Anna.

ñafter had better and would rather. We had better take the train because the traffic is very bad at the moment.

ñhelp can be followed by either the to-infinitive or the infinitive without to. She helped me (to) choose the carpet for the living room.

-ing form

The -ing form is used:

ñas a noun. Smoking is very bad for your health.

ñafter certain verbs: admit, appreciate, avoid, continue, deny, fancy, go (for activities), imagine, mind, miss, quit, save, suggest, practise, consider, prevent. Can you imagine winning the lottery?

ñafter love, like, enjoy, prefer, dislike, hate to express general preference. Jamie enjoys talking to his friends on the phone. BUT: for a specific preference (would like/ would prefer/would love) we use a to-infinitive.

ñafter expressions such as be busy, it’s no use, it’s (no) good, it’s (not) worth, what’s the use of, can’t help, there’s no point in, can’t stand, have difficulty (in), have trouble etc. There is no point in talking to the boss about it, he never listens to us.

ñafter spend, waste, or lose (time, money, etc). He spent a lot of time and money repairing his car.

ñafter the preposition to with verbs and expressions such as look forward to, be used to, in addition to, object to, prefer (doing sth to sth else). He prefers swimming to playing football.

ñafter other prepositions. He was thinking of quitting his job.

ñafter the verbs hear, listen to, notice, see, watch, and feel to describe an incomplete action. I heard Nicky talking to Chris. (I only heard part of the conversation.)

BUT: we use the infinitive without to with hear, listen to, notice, see, watch, and feel to describe the complete action. IheardNickytellthestory.(Iheardthewholestory.)

Difference in meaning between the to-infinitive and

-ing form

Some verbs can take either the to-infinitive or the -ing form with a change in meaning.

ñforget + to-infinitive = not remember – He forgot to lock the door.

forget + -ing form = not recall – I’ll never forget travelling around India.

ñremember+ to infinitive = not forget – Did you remember to turn off all the lights?

remember + -ing form = recall – I remember talking to Jane at the party.

ñmean + to-infinitive = intend to – I’m sorry I never meant to upset you.

mean + -ing form = involve – If I get this job I’m afraid it will mean moving nearer to the city centre.

ñregret + to-infinitive = be sorry to (normally used in the present simple with verbs such as say, tell, inform) – We regret to inform passengersthattheBritishAirwaysflightto Heathrowhasbeencancelled.

regret + -ing form = feel sorry about – I regret losing touch with my old friend Stuart.

ñtry + to-infinitive = do one’s best, attempt – She tried to call you but she couldn’t get through.

try + -ing form = do something as an experiment –

Why don’t you try changing the batteries?

ñstop + to-infinitive = stop temporarily in order to do something else – After a couple of hours we stopped to have a rest.

stop + -ing form = finish doing something – At five o’clock everyone stopped working and went home.

Comparisons

As / Like

We use like:

ñwith nouns/pronouns/-ing form to express similarity.

She treats him like a servant. (He isn’t a servant.)

ñwith feel, look, smell, taste. He looks like his brother.

We use as:

ñto say what somebody or something really is. He works as a personnel manager for that accounting firm.

Comparatives and Superlatives

We use the comparative to compare one person or thing with another. We use the superlative to compare one person or thing with more than one person or thing of the same group. We often use than after a comparative and the before a superlative. He is older than me. He’s the oldest person in the room.

Formation of comparatives and superlatives from adjectives and adverbs:

ñwith one-syllable adjectives, add -(e)r to form the comparative and -(e)st to form the superlative. close – closer – closest

Note: for one syllable adjectives ending in a vowel + a consonant, we double the consonant.

big – bigger – biggest

ñwith two-syllable adjectives ending in -ly, -y, -w, also add -er / -est. narrow – narrower – narrowest

Note: for adjectives ending in a consonant + y we replace the -y with an -i. tiny – tinier – tiniest

ñwith other two-syllable adjectives or adjectives with more than two syllables, comparatives and superlatives are formed with more/most.

intelligent – more intelligent – most intelligent

ñwith adverbs that have the same form as their adjectives we add -er/-est. hard – harder – hardest

ñtwo-syllable or compound adverbs take more/most. slowly – more slowly – most slowly

Note: clever, common, cruel, friendly, gentle, pleasant, polite, shallow, simple, stupid, quiet can form their comparatives and superlatives either with

-er/-est or with more/most

ñIrregular forms:

good – better – best / bad – worse – worst / much – more – most / little – less – least / far – farther/further – farthest/furthest / many/lots – more – most

Types of comparisons:

ñas + adjective + as (to show that two people or things are similar in some way) In negative sentences we use not as/so ... as. The blue skirt is as expensive as the red one.

ñless + adjective + than (expresses the difference between two people or things) The opposite is more ...

than. Paul is less successful than his brother.

ñthe least + adjective + of/in (compares one person or thing to two or more people or things in the same group. The opposite is most ... of/in. She is the least ambitious person in the company.

ñmuch/a lot/far/a little/a bit/slightly + comparative

(expresses the degree of difference between two people or things) Brian is slightly older than Claire.

ñcomparative and comparative to show that something is increasing or decreasing The traffic gets worse and worse every day.

ñthe + comparative ..., the + comparative (shows that two things change together or that one thing depends on another thing) The longer the day went on, the more tired she became.

ñby far + the + superlative (emphasises the difference between one person or thing and two or more people or things in the same group) Last year was by far the best the company has ever had.

Unit 5

Present/Past Participles

We use present participles to describe something. It was a boring lecture. (How was the lecture? Boring.)

We use past participles to say how someone felt. We were bored. (How did we feel? Bored.)

Logical Assumptions/Deductions

Must: Sure/Certain that sth is true.

Must is used in affirmative sentences and expresses positive logical beliefs. You’ve been travelling all day, you must be exhausted!

Can’t/couldn’t: Certain that sth is not true/real.

Can’t and couldn’t are used in negations and express negative logical assumptions. That can’t be Jason, he’s on holiday in Spain at the moment.

Possibility

Can + present infinitive: General possibility, sth theoretically possible. Not used for a specific situation. Forthe main course you can have pasta or pizza.

Could/May/Might + present infinitive: It is possible/ likely, perhaps. Used to show sth is possible in a specific situation. You should keep that picture, it may be valuable one day.

Note: we can use can/could/might in questions BUT NOT may. Do you think that you can/could/might fix it?

Could/Might/Would + perfect infinitive: Refers to the past, sth that was possible but didn’t happen. She might have passed the exam if she had studied harder.

Obligation/Duty/Necessity

Must: Expresses duty, strong obligation to do sth. Sth is essential. We generally use must when the speaker has decided that sth is necessary. I must pay the electricity bill today.

Have to: Expresses strong necessity/obligation. We usually use have to when somebody other than the speaker has decided that sth is necessary. The teacher said we have to hand our homework in tomorrow.

Note: Must and have to have different meanings in questions.

DoIhavetowashthecarnow?(Isitnecessaryforme...?)MustIwash thecarnow?(DoyouinsistthatI...?)

Should/Ought to: Express duty, weak obligation. These are less emphatic than must/ have to. We should redecorate the living room soon.

Need: It is necessary to. Need I apply for the job in writing?

Note: Need can be used as a modal verb or as a main verb with no change in meaning. Need I finish the report today? (Do I need to finish the report today?)

Absence of necessity

Needn’t/Don’t have to/Don’t need to + present infinitive: It isn’t necessary to do sth (in the present/future).

You don’t need to take the dog for a walk, I will do it.

Didn’t need to/Didn’t have to: It wasn’t necessary to do sth. We don’t know if it was done or not. She didn’t need to/have to paythewholeamounttoday.(Wedon’tknowifshepaid it or not.)

Needn’t + bare perfect infinitive: It was not necessary to do sth but it was done. You needn’t have typed the whole thing again it was saved on the computer. (You did type it all.)

Prohibition

Mustn’t/Can’t: It is forbidden to do sth; it is against the rules/law; you are not allowed to do sth. You mustn’t/can’t drive if you haven’t got a licence.

Criticism

Could/Should/Might/Ought to/ + perfect infinitive:

Used to criticise someone’s actions or lack of action (in the past). It would have been better if you had ... (past). They could have thanked me for everything I’ve done for them.

Question Tags

ñQuestion tags are formed with an auxiliary verb and the appropriate personal pronoun. They take the same auxiliary as in the statement or, if there isn’t an auxiliary in the statement they take do/does (present simple) or did (past simple).

ñAfter affirmative statements we use a negative interrogative tag and after negative statements we use an ordinary interrogative tag.

He works in the bank, doesn’t he?

She couldn’t remember his phone number, could she?

Note:

Let’s has the tag shall we? – Let’s put some music on, shall we?

Let me/him has the tag will you/won’t you? – You’ll let me borrow this shirt, won’t you?

I have (possess) has the tag haven’t I? BUT I have (used idiomatically) has the tag don’t I? – He has ablue car, hasn’t he? Last week he had a cold, didn’t he?

This/That is has the tag isn’t it? – This restaurant is very cheap, isn’t it?

I am has the tag aren’t I? – I am late aren’t I?

A negative imperative has the question tag will you? –

Don’t tell anyone, will you?

Unit 6

The Passive

We form the passive with the verb to be in the appropriate tense and the past participle of the main verb. Only transitive verbs (verbs which take an object) can be used in the passive. (live does not have a passive form).

We use the passive:

ñwhen the person or people who do the action are unknown, unimportant or obvious from the context.

Jim’sbikewasstolen.(Wedon’tknowwhostoleit.)Thehouseis being redecorated. (It’s unimportant who is doing it.) The thief hasbeenarrested.(It’sobviousthatthepolicearrestedhim.)

ñwhen the action itself is more important than the person/people who do it, as in news headlines, newspaper articles, formal notices, advertisements, instructions, processes etc. The annual general meeting will be held on June 25th.

ñwhen we want to avoid taking responsibility for an action or when we refer to an unpleasant event and we do not want to say who or what is to blame. Three people were seriously injured in the accident.

Changing from the active to the passive:

ñthe object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence

ñthe active verb remains in the same tense but changes into a passive form

ñthe subject of the active sentence becomes the agent, and is either introduced with the preposition by or is omitted.

ñOnly transitive verbs (verbs that take an object) can be changed into the passive. Active: Jackie lives on the third floor (intransitive verb) no passive form: The third floor is lived on by Jackie.

Note: Some transitive verbs (have, exist, seem, fit, suit, resemble, lack etc) cannot be changed into the passive.

Rick has a red jumper. NOT: A red jumper is had by Rick.

ñwe can use the verb to get instead of the verb to be in everyday speech when we talk about things that happen by accident or unexpectedly. He got injured when he was playing rugby. (Instead of he was injured…)

ñBy + the agent is used to say who or what carries out an action. with + instrument/material/ingredient is used to say what the agent used. The pasta sauce was made by Tony. It was made with fresh tomatoes from the garden.

ñThe agent can be omitted when the subject is they, he, someone/somebody, people, one, etc. Somebody has cleaned the car. = The car has been cleaned.

ñThe agent is not omitted when it is a specific or important person, or when it is essential to the meaning of the sentence. ThefilmwasdirectedbyDavidLynch.

ñWith verbs which can take two objects such as bring, tell, send, show, teach, promise, buy, sell, read, offer, give, lend, etc, we can form two different passive sentences.

Lucy gave the letter to me. (active)

I was given the letter by Lucy. (passive, more usual) The letter was given to me by Lucy. (passive, less usual)

ñIf in an active sentence a preposition follows a verb, then in the passive it is placed immediately after the verb. The ball hit Charlie on the head. Charlie was hit on the head by the ball.

ñThe verbs hear, help, see, and make are followed by the bare infinitive in the active but by the to-infinitive in the passive. Tina’s mum made her clean her room. Tina was made to clean her room by her mum.

ñLet becomes be allowed to in the passive. The teacher let the children leave early. The children were allowed to leave early.

ñTo ask questions in the passive we follow the same rules as for statements, keeping in mind that the verb is in the interrogative form. Have they opened the new shopping centre yet? Has the new shopping centre been opened (by them) yet?

ñWhen we want to find out who or what performed an action, the passive question form is Who/What … by?

Who was the book written by?

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are introduced with either a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.

Relative Pronouns

We use:

i.who(m)/that to refer to people.

ii.which/that to refer to things.

iii.whose with people, animals and objects to show possession (instead of a possessive adjective).

ñWho, which, and that can be omitted when they are the object of the relative clause. He’s the person (who) I am going to be working for.

ñWhom can be used instead of who when it is the object of the relative clause. Whom is always used instead of who or that after a preposition. That’s the girl to whom Rob was speaking at the party last night.

ñWho, which, or that is not omitted when it is the subject of a relative clause. The woman who owns that restaurant is French.

ñWhose is never omitted. That’sthemanwhosesonhadthe accident.

Relative adverbs

We use:

i.when/that to refer to a time (and can be omitted)

That was the year (when/that) we finished school.

ii.where to refer to a place. The hospital where I was born is closing down.

iii.why to give a reason, usually after the word reason (why can be omitted). The reason (why) he did this is still not clear.

Identifying and Non-Identifying Relative

Clauses

An identifying relative clause gives necessary information essential to the meaning of the main sentence. It is not put in commas and is introduced with who, which, that, whose, where, when, or the reason (why). The man who sold me the car said it had never broken down.

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A non-identifying relative clause gives extra information and is not essential to the meaning of the main sentence. It is put in commas and is introduced with who, whom, which, whose, where, or when. The man, who was very persuasive, sold me the car for í1000.

Unit 7

Causative form

ñwe use have + object + past participle to say that we have arranged for someone to do something for us. The past participle has a passive meaning. Jackiehad her jacket cleaned at the dry cleaner’s. (She didn’t clean it herself.)

ñQuestions and negations of the verb have are formed with do/does (present simple) or did (past simple). Did you have the photographs developed yesterday?

ñWe also use have something done to talk about an unpleasant experience that somebody had. Last night Neil had his mobile phone stolen. (= his phone was stolen)

ñWe can use the verb get instead of have in informal conversation. I’m going to get a new lock fitted on the front door.

Note: The word order is very important. Tony had his car repaired and Tony had repaired his car have very different meanings. In the first case Tony arranged for someone else to do the repairs whereas in the second case he carried out the repairs himself.

Reported Speech - Statements

Reported speech is the exact meaning of what someone said, but not the exact words. We do not use quotation marks. The word that can either be used or omitted after the introductory verb (say, tell, suggest, etc).

She said (that) she wouldn’t be back until 10 o’clock.

Say - Tell

ñsay + no personal object – He said he was very tired.

ñsay + to + personal object – He said to us he was very tired.

ñtell + personal object – He told us he was very tired.

Expressions used with say, tell and ask.

hello, good morning/afternoon etc, something/ Say nothing, so, a prayer, a few words, no more, for

certain/sure etc

the truth, a lie, a story, a secret, a joke, the time, the

difference, one from another, somebody one’s name, Tell somebody the way, somebody so, someone’s

fortune, etc

Ask a question, a favour, the price, after somebody, the time, around, for something/somebody, etc

Reported Statements

ñIn reported speech, personal/possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives change according to the meaning of the sentence.

John said, “I’m having my bike repaired.”

John said (that) he was having his bike repaired.

ñWe can report someoneãs words either a long time after they were said (out-of-date reporting) or a short time after they were said (up-to-date reporting).

Up-to-date reporting

The tenses can either change or remain the same in reported speech.

Direct speech: Timsaid,“Istillhaven’t done myhomework.” Reported speech: Tim said (that) he still hasn’t/hadn’t done

his homework.

Out-of-date reporting

The introductory verb is in the past simple and the tenses change as follows:

Past Continuous → Past Continuous or Past Perfect Continuous

ñCertain words and time expressions change according to the meaning as follows:

ñThe verb tenses remain the same in reported speech when the introductory verb is in the present, future or present perfect.

Ann has said, “Breakfast is ready.” Ann has said (that) breakfast is ready.

ñThe verb tenses can either change or remain the same in reported speech when reporting a general truth or law of nature.

The teacher said “Malta is an island.”

The teacher said (that) Malta is/was an island.

Reported Questions

ñReported questions are usually introduced with the verbs ask, inquire, wonder or the expression want to know.